Vanuatu's water taro Alliance: Uniting for better Production, Nutrition, Environment, and Life
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations *
(
United Nations / Multilateral body
)
#SDGAction54832
Description
The strategic alliance among local farmers, agricultural extension officers, academia, private sector, government bodies, FAO, and GEF is dedicated to advancing water taro cultivation in Vanuatu. The goal is to elevate taro production through innovative, sustainable methods, bolster resilience and yields to climate variations, and improve local livelihoods and income. The coalition aims to enhance food security, nutritional standards, and economic returns, prioritizing efficient water quality improvement, water utilization, and waste reduction. Over four years, the partnership developed sustainable taro gardens and plans to expand on 1,033 hectares of restored lands, balancing growth with tourism and infrastructure advancement.
Taro, a fundamental root vegetable in the Vanuatu population's diet, requires a sustained supply of water throughout its production stages to sustain yields and foster plant growth, particularly during dry seasons. However, the deterioration of forests has reduced their capacity to provide the necessary water for the taro gardens, posing a threat to the viability of this agroforestry system and jeopardizing local food security and livelihoods. Taro, an essential staple in the diet of the Vanuatuan populace, necessitates a consistent water supply throughout its growth cycle to maintain yields and support plant development, particularly during periods of drought. The degradation of forest ecosystems, which play a critical role in water catchment and hydrological services, has diminished their ability to sustain these water-intensive taro gardens, thereby threatening the integrity of this traditional agroforestry system and undermining local food security and economic stability. Recognizing these challenges, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development in Vanuatu spearheaded a collaborative effort to engage with local communities, government bodies, and a broad spectrum of stakeholders. This initiative sought to meticulously delineate the specific challenges, necessities, and prospects pertinent to the enhancement of water taro garden productivity and resilience, ensuring a comprehensive representation of stakeholder insights. In partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), vital technical expertise and financial assistance were mobilized to fortify these agroforestry systems against climatic adversities. A detailed analysis conducted by these bodies was instrumental in assessing the feasibility of potential new sites for taro cultivation and pinpointing prevailing deficiencies in knowledge, resources, and technological adoption (FAO, 2020). After these insights, a strategic approach was formulated to augment the long-term sustainability of water taro gardens amidst changing climatic conditions. Concurrently, bespoke training initiatives were rolled out to impart sustainable water management techniques to stakeholders. These educational endeavors were complemented by the introduction of a suite of innovative agricultural practices and technologies designed to integrate seamlessly into the existing agricultural framework (World Bank, 2018). The amalgamation of these concerted efforts has yielded a multifaceted strategy that not only confronts immediate impediments but also establishes a robust foundation for enduring productivity and resilience within water taro gardens. This initiative strives to forge a model for resilient agricultural methodologies that may be replicated in analogous scenarios, thereby promoting enduring sustainability and affluence for communities reliant on taro cultivation.
In response to the critical need for sustainable agricultural practices, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), has initiated a series of evidence-based interventions aimed at bolstering the resilience of traditional water taro gardens in Vanuatu. These initiatives are grounded in empirical research and best practices as documented in agronomic literature (FAO, 2018; GEF, 2020). The local farming communities have actively engaged with these initiatives, adopting a suite of innovative agronomic techniques tailored to enhance the water efficiency and productivity of their gardens. The introduction of drip irrigation systems, which are supported by findings from peer-reviewed studies, has optimized water use, while the construction of improved small dams and water diversion structures has been informed by hydrological research. Rainwater harvesting techniques and the application of water-efficient farming methods such as aquaponics have been adapted from successful models in similar ecological zones. Moreover, these communities have effectively integrated traditional ecological knowledge with contemporary scientific approaches, employing companion planting strategies that draw upon indigenous practices and are corroborated by entomological research to reduce pest prevalence. Soil fertility and structure conservation techniques such as mulching, composting, and crop rotation have been enhanced by agroecological principles to improve the overall productivity and resilience of the water taro gardens. The pragmatic adoption of these innovations has had a tangible impact on food security, particularly highlighted by the swift recovery of food supply chains following the devastation caused by twin cyclones in March 2023. The transportation of 3.5 tons of water taro from South Santo to critical areas such as Port Vila and Tana exemplifies the robustness of these agricultural systems under climatic duress (Vanuatu Department of Agriculture, 2023). Employment generation within these communities has also been a positive outcome, with additional benefits including soil erosion prevention through the implementation of contour farming, terracing, and the use of cover crops. These practices are in line with contemporary soil conservation research and are instrumental in maintaining the integrity of steep slope farming. Collectively, these collaborative efforts contribute to sustainable forest management objectives, reinforcing biodiversity conservation, optimizing water use efficiency, and ensuring consistent water availability for taro cultivation throughout the year (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2024). The holistic approach adopted by the partnership effectively addresses multiple facets of sustainability, setting a precedent for similar agricultural ecosystems globally.
MALFFB through the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD), and the Ministry of Climate Change, through the Department of Environmental Protection and Conservation (DEPC), represent the government's commitment. They are instrumental in policy formulation, funding allocation, and regulation adherence, guided by the national Root Crops Strategy. Regular stakeholder meetings are convened to facilitate dialogue, align strategies, and consolidate roles. Communication protocols involve a multi-tiered approach where information flows from grassroots to government levels and vice versa, ensuring inclusivity and transparency. Decision-making processes are democratic and participatory, involving representatives from all sectors. This ensures that policies and actions reflect the collective input and address the needs and priorities of all stakeholders. Decisions are made based on consensus or through a voting process when necessary. Evaluation methods are both quantitative and qualitative, providing a comprehensive understanding of the project's impact. Quantitative data includes yield measurements, economic analysis, and environmental assessments. Qualitative data is gathered through community feedback, surveys, and interviews, providing insights into the socio-cultural and practical implications of the gardens. Reporting procedures are formalized to maintain accountability. Progress reports are generated by Local Conservation Specialists and disseminated through established channels to all stakeholders. These reports encompass both successes and challenges, offering a clear picture of on-the-ground realities. Adaptation procedures are embedded within the partnership's ethos. Feedback loops are designed to inform policy adjustments and practical interventions. This ensures that the project remains responsive to changing conditions, whether ecological, economic, or social. In specific locales such as Aneityum, Efate, and South Pentecost where physical presence is established, monitoring is conducted by Local Conservation Specialists who employ both quantitative and qualitative methods for evaluation. This localized approach ensures that interventions are tailored to the unique ecological and cultural contexts of each community. Organizations like Vanua Tai, Live & Learn, VCAP, and FAO-GEF provide funding, technical assistance, and capacity-building; they also support the development of sustainable garden policies. Farmers and local communities, encompassing 6287 households, are integral to the cultivation and maintenance of these gardens. Their role extends beyond production; they are custodians of indigenous knowledge and active promoters of water taro benefits within their communities. Universities like the National University of Vanuatu contribute research-based insights and improve water taro cultivation practices. This multifaceted partnership uses shared knowledge, resources, and goals to improve water, taro garden productivity, protect Vanuatu's environmental heritage, and strengthen community resilience and prosperity.
SDGS & Targets
Goal 2
End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
2.1
By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
2.1.1
Prevalence of undernourishment
2.1.2
Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
2.2
By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
2.2.1
Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age
2.2.2
Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight)
2.2.3
Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage)
2.3
2.3.1
Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise size
2.3.2
Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status
2.4
By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
2.4.1
Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture
2.5
By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed
2.5.1
Number of (a) plant and (b) animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in either medium- or long-term conservation facilities
2.5.2
Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction
2.a
2.a.1
The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures
2.a.2
Total official flows (official development assistance plus other official flows) to the agriculture sector
2.b
Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round
2.b.1
Agricultural export subsidies
2.c
Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility
2.c.1
Indicator of food price anomalies
Goal 5
Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
5.1
End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
5.1.1
Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of sex
5.2
5.2.1
Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age
5.2.2
Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence
5.3
5.3.1
Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18
5.3.2
Proportion of girls and women aged 15-49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age
5.4
Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate
5.4.1
Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location
5.5
Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life
5.5.1
Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local governments
5.5.2
Proportion of women in managerial positions
5.6
Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences
5.6.1
Proportion of women aged 15-49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care
5.6.2
Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education
5.a
Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws
5.a.1
(a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure
5.a.2
Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control
5.b
5.b.1
Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex
5.c
Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels
5.c.1
Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women’s empowerment
Goal 6
Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
6.1
By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
6.1.1
Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
6.2
By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
6.2.1
Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water
6.3
By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
6.3.1
Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated
6.3.2
Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality
6.4
6.4.1
Change in water-use efficiency over time
6.4.2
Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources
6.5
By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
6.5.1
Degree of integrated water resources management
6.5.2
Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation
6.6
6.6.1
Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
6.a
6.a.1
Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is part of a government-coordinated spending plan
6.b
Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management
6.b.1
Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management
Goal 8
Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all
8.1
8.1.1
Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita
8.2
Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
8.2.1
Annual growth rate of real GDP per employed person
8.3
Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services
8.3.1
Proportion of informal employment in total employment, by sector and sex
8.4
Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead
8.4.1
Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
8.4.2
Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
8.5
8.5.1
Average hourly earnings of female and male employees, by occupation, age and persons with disabilities
8.5.2
Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
8.6
8.6.1
Proportion of youth (aged 15-24 years) not in education, employment or training
8.7
Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
8.7.1
Proportion and number of children aged 5‑17 years engaged in child labour, by sex and age
8.8
Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment
8.8.1
Fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers, by sex and migrant status
8.8.2
Level of national compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status
8.9
By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
8.9.1
Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate
8.10
Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
8.10.1
(a) Number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults and (b) number of automated teller machines (ATMs) per 100,000 adults
8.10.2
Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider
8.a
8.a.1
Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements
8.b
By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
8.b.1
Existence of a developed and operationalized national strategy for youth employment, as a distinct strategy or as part of a national employment strategy
Goal 12
Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
12.1
Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
12.1.1
Number of countries developing, adopting or implementing policy instruments aimed at supporting the shift to sustainable consumption and production
12.2
By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
12.2.1
Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
12.2.2
Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
12.3
By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses
12.3.1
(a) Food loss index and (b) food waste index
12.4
By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
12.4.1
12.4.2
(a) Hazardous waste generated per capita; and (b) proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment
12.5
By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
12.5.1
National recycling rate, tons of material recycled
12.6
Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle
12.6.1
12.7
Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities
12.7.1
Number of countries implementing sustainable public procurement policies and action plans
12.8
By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
12.8.1
Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
12.a
Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production
12.a.1
Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing and developed countries (in watts per capita)
12.b
Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
12.b.1
Implementation of standard accounting tools to monitor the economic and environmental aspects of tourism sustainability
12.c
Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities
12.c.1
Amount of fossil-fuel subsidies (production and consumption) per unit of GDP
Goal 13
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
13.1
Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
13.1.1
Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
13.1.2
Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
13.1.3
Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
13.2
Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
13.2.1
Number of countries with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans and adaptation communications, as reported to the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
13.2.2
Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
13.3
Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
13.3.1
Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
13.a
Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
13.a.1
Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to the continued existing collective mobilization goal of the $100 billion commitment through to 2025
13.b
Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities
13.b.1
Number of least developed countries and small island developing States with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans and adaptation communications, as reported to the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Goal 15
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
15.1
By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
15.1.1
15.1.2
15.2
By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
15.2.1
15.3
By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world
15.3.1
15.4
By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.5
Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
15.5.1
15.6
Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed
15.6.1
15.7
Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products
15.7.1
15.8
By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species
15.8.1
15.9
By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts
15.9.1
(a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported towards these targets; and (b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting
15.a
Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
15.a.1
(a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
15.b
Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation
15.b.1
(a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
15.c
Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities
15.c.1
SDG 14 targets covered
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Deliverables & Timeline
The Global Importance Heritage Agriculture System (GIHAS) was completed and submitted to the FAO Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIHAS) unit for evaluation.
The document is expected to be approved by the GIHAS Scientific Committee along with five year action plan.
Water Taro Gardens Irrigation System for Vanuatu declared as GIHAS
The activities stated in the Action Plan are carried out using designated funds.
Resources mobilized
Partnership Progress
Feedback
Action Network
Share
Timeline
Entity
More information
Countries
SIDS regions
- Pacific
Samoa pathway priority area
- Sustained and Sustainable, Inclusive and Equitable Economic Growth with Decent Work for All
- Climate Change
- Food Security and Nutrition
- Sustainable Consumption and Production
- Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment
- Social Development
- Biodiversity
- SIDS Priorities for the post-2015 Development Agenda
Contact Information
Ehsan, International Communication Specialist, FAO Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands